Notebook for
Gut The Inside Story of Our Body’s Most Underrated Organ (Revised Edition)
Preface
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I wondered if it could have been a diseased gut creating that smell, and if so, could a diseased gut also have affected that man’s psychological state?
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The influence of the gut on our health and well- being is one of the new lines of research in modern medicine.
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generally accepted in scientific circles that people with certain digestive problems often suffer from nervous disorders of the gut.
1. Gut Feeling
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While some of us might be sitting around thinking “Nobody cares about me!”, our heart is currently working its seventeen- thousandth twenty- four- hour shift— and would have every right to feel a little forgotten when its owner thinks such thoughts.
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wonderful ability that books possess to show us more than the world we see around
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There are those who clench with all their might to keep the wind in, come what may, eventually struggling home wracked with bellyache.
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fact, we are able to reeducate it completely. That means the sphincter and the surrounding muscles have been disciplined so often by the external sphincter that they become cowed. If communication between the two sphincters breaks down completely, constipation can result.
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Is it true that we don’t sit on the toilet properly? How can we burp more easily? Why can we get energy from steaks, apples, or fried potatoes, for example, but cars are much more restricted in their fuel options? Why do we have an appendix? Why are feces always the same color?
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IT’S A GOOD idea to question your own habits from time to time.
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Hemorrhoids, digestive diseases like diverticulitis, and even constipation are common only in countries where people generally sit on some kind of chair to pass their stool.
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Doctors believe that straining too much or too often on the toilet can also seriously increase the risk of varicose veins, a stroke, or defecation syncope— fainting on the toilet.
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These little nubs, which doctors call the parotid papillae,
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These four little nubs supply your mouth with saliva.
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it has such a rough surface, affording a much better foothold for bacteria that cause tooth decay and gum disease than smooth, clean tooth enamel.
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In fact, saliva analysis can be used to test for diseases of the immune system or for certain hormones.
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since our mouth is such a sensitive thing. It contains more nerve endings than almost anywhere else in the human body.
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Saliva protects the oral cavity not only from too much pain, but also from too many bad bacteria. That’s the job of mucins, for example. Mucins are proteins that form the main constituent of mucus.
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The fact that we produce so little saliva at night explains why many people have bad breath or a sore throat in the morning. Eight hours of scarce salivation means one thing for the microbes in our mouth— party time! Brazen bacteria are no longer kept in check, and the mucus membranes in our mouth and throat miss their sprinkler system.
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Munching on our first piece of toast or performing our morning dental hygiene duties adds extra stimulation for salivation, and this washes away the nocturnal microbes or transports them down into our stomach, where our gastric juices finish them off.
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If none of this helps, there is another place where the causes of bad breath can lurk— but more of that later, after we have found out about the second secret place in our mouth.
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After all, this area includes some of the most inquisitive tissue in our body— immune tissue.
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Strictly speaking, a ring of immune tissue encircles our entire throat. Known to scientists as Waldeyer’s tonsillar ring,
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Sometimes, too much foreign material can get caught in the crypts, leading to frequent infections. This is a side effect, so to speak, of having overinquisitive tonsils. So, if the tongue and teeth have been excluded as a cause of a patient’s bad breath, the next place to check is the tonsils— if they are still there.
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little white stones can be found hiding in the crypts, and these stones smell terrible!
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No amount of tooth brushing, tongue scraping, or gargling helps. The little stones will eventually work their way out of their hiding places, with no permanent harm done. But you can also take fate into your own hands and, with a little practice, squeeze them out.
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view some extreme examples. But be warned! These videos are not for the fainthearted.
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A more thoroughly researched medical question is that of when a tonsillectomy can or should be carried out. The answer turns out to be— not before the age of seven.
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having many colds in quick succession; meeting a load of new people at school.
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Some sufferers of rheumatic diseases are also now advised to have their tonsils removed if they are suspected of being part of the cause of the condition.
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That’s where we find the apparently useless appendix, which seems to be incapable of doing anything except getting infected.
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simply walking normally, we tense our abdominal muscles, doubling the pressure in our abdomen with every step we take.
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It is thanks to this arrangement that we can take a walk after a heavy meal without having to burp with every step.
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although a fit of laughter might result in us losing a little control over our outer sphincter and inadvertently letting out a little “laughing gas,” few people have been known to vomit from laughing.
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So, if you’re kept awake at night by a bloated stomach and you are lying on your right side,
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denser materials, such as teeth or bone, show up white, while less dense materials, such as the stomach bubble or the air in the lungs, show up as dark areas.
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This causes it to narrow, in turn allowing it to close more efficiently at each end. That is why sitting or standing up straight can help prevent heartburn after a large meal.
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The heart and the lungs sit on top of the stomach.
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Roemheld syndrome,
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This thing hppens with me many times, and some times veryvery intense
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so much gas collects in the stomach that it presses up against the heart and the nerves in the gut. Sufferers can display a range of different symptoms, including dizziness and discomfort. In more severe cases, Roemheld syndrome can cause anxiety or difficulty in breathing, and may also lead to severe chest pain that feels like a heart attack.
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A more useful approach would be to ask patients if they have tried burping or passing wind.
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long term, it may be better for such patients to avoid any food that leaves them bloated or flatulent,
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Hve to take measure wherever this hppens
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abdominal pain makes us wince, its muscles wince in a similar way.
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Haha
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colonoscopy.
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our teeth burst millions of apple cells like tiny balloons. The fresher the apple is, the more of its cells remain intact— which is why we can tell how fresh the fruit is by its crispness as we bite into it.
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Cooking food saves us the whole first burst of energy required to unfold those proteins, which would otherwise have to be expended by the stomach. By preferring cooked food, the body outsources the first part of the digestive process.
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It is through this little hole that digestive juices are squirted onto the chyme. As soon as we eat something, the liver and pancreas begin to produce these juices and deliver them to the papilla.
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digestive enzymes and fat solvents.
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in case parts of the gut are temporarily put out of action by infection or gastric flu.
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intestine’s blood vessels eventually come together and carry the blood to the liver, where the nutrients are screened for harmful substances and toxins.
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That releases energy, which the cell uses to stay alive, with heat and tiny amounts of water created as byproducts. This happens inside so many cells at the same time that the heat produced keeps our body at a constant temperature of 97 to 99 degrees Fahrenheit (36 to 37 degrees Celsius).
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Nature requires energy to ripen an apple on the tree. We humans come along and break the apple down into its constituent molecules and metabolize them for energy.
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Our lungs, for example, do nothing other than absorb molecules with every breath we take. Thus, “breathing in” really means “taking in nourishment in gaseous form.”
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large amount of blood is delivered to our digestive organs, and many researchers also believe that postprandial tiredness may be due to the resulting reduced blood supply to the brain.
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This tiredness is perhaps inconvenient for our brain when we are at work, but the small intestine welcomes it. It works most effectively when we are pleasantly relaxed. It means the optimum amount of energy is available for digestion and our blood is not full of stress hormones. The phlegmatic after- lunch reader is a more efficient digester than the stressed- out office executive.
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Other signs of appendicitis are pain when raising the right leg against a resistant pressure (get someone to push against it), lack of appetite, and nausea.
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appendix is part of the tonsillar immune tissue.
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the appendix is made almost entirely of immune tissue. So, if a bad germ comes by, it is surrounded.
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If this inflammation causes the appendix to swell, the little tube has problems sweeping itself clean of those bad germs—
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healthy appendix acts as a storehouse of all the best, most helpful bacteria.
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Anyone who wants to take no chances after a bout of diarrhea can buy good bacteria at the pharmacy to repopulate their gut.
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Tablets and fluid medications often have to contain large doses of the active agent because much of it is removed by the liver before it even reaches the area of the body it is meant to act on.
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make use of the shortcut via the rectum and use a suppository. This is an especially good idea for very young or very old patients.
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living things are made out of the same basic ingredients: sugar molecules, amino acids, and fats.
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So, wholegrain bread is not a sugar explosion, but a beneficial sugar store. Incidentally, our body has to work much harder to restore a healthy balance if a sugar onrush comes suddenly.
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If it doesn’t enter the system too quickly, sugar is an important raw material for our body.
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because they save the body work, since sugar can be taken up more quickly.
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Some 80 percent of the processed foods found on the shelves of modern- day American supermarkets contain added sugar.
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Another strategy is to convert the excess sugar into fat and store it in fatty tissue. Sugar is the only substance our body can turn into fat with little effort.
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It is not until we pass through that first energy dip that we start to tap into those fine reserves.
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The simple reason for this is that human cells adore fat.
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When the next period of famine comes— and there have been many over the eons— every ounce of fat in that paunch is a life insurance policy.
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So fat must be absorbed via a different route: the lymphatic system.
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Every blood vessel inside the body is accompanied by a lymphatic vessel, even each tiny capillary in the small intestine.
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lymphatic vessels every time we take a step and that squeezes the fluid— known as lymph in
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our blood vessels are at the mercy of everything that McDonald’s and similar fast- food outlets were able to get hold of at the lowest purchase price.
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Many studies have been carried out into the effects of olive oil, and results show that it can protect against arteriosclerosis, cellular stress, Alzheimer’s, and eye diseases such as macular degeneration.
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But merrily drizzling your olive oil into the pan for frying is not such a good idea as heat can cause a lot of damage.
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Cooking oil or solid fats such as butter or hydrogenated coconut oil should be used for frying.
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Fine oils are not only sensitive to heat, they also tend to capture free radicals from the air.
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Sometimes, pain levels can be reduced somewhat simply by taking care to eat more vegetable fat than animal fat.
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But this does not spell the final triumph of the meat eaters over the meat- avoiders. Vegetarians and vegans simply have to be cleverer in combining their foods.
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Vegetarians who eat cheese and eggs can compensate for incomplete proteins that way. For centuries in many countries around the world, people have intuitively eaten meals made up of foodstuffs that complement each other:
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In theory, combining does not even have to take place within one meal. It is enough to
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we fail to break down a protein into its constituent amino acids, tiny bits of it will remain.
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And so it goes on, until we reach the stage where just putting a peanut in our mouth causes our
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both fatty and rich in protein, such as milk, eggs, and, most
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interested in gluten— a protein found in wheat and related grains.
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with the symptoms for years without realizing it. They may have the occasional stomachache, or their doctor might discover signs of anemia during routine blood
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the most effective treatment is a lifelong gluten- free diet.
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Many people notice their sensitivity when they swear off gluten for a week or two and see an improvement in their general well- being. Suddenly, their digestive problems or flatulence clear up, or they have fewer headaches or less painful joints.
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Sensitivity to gluten resulting from these temporary causes can sometimes look the same as the symptoms of true gluten intolerance.
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LACTOSE INTOLERANCE is not an allergy or a real intolerance at all, but a deficiency.
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into the large intestine, where they become food for the gas- producing bacteria there.
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votes of thanks from extremely satisfied, overfed microbes.
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lactose intolerance is far less harmful to health than undiagnosed celiac disease.
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In 75 percent of the world’s population, the gene for digesting lactose slowly begins to switch off as they get older.
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When they ingest even a small amount of fruit sugar— for example, by eating a pear— their limited transporters are overwhelmed and, as with lactose intolerance, the sugar from the pear ends up feeding the flora of the large intestine.
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Of course, the more ketchup, canned soup, or sweetened yogurt they have eaten, the worse their troubles will be.
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Sugar helps the body absorb many other nutrients into the bloodstream.
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consuming just honey on their toast, far fewer processed foods, and a normal amount of fruit, took in no more than ½ to 1 ounce (only around 16 to 24 grams) a day.
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This shows that what had once been a very sensible meat- preserving technique was in drastic need of correction.
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cure their meats safely. A similar modern reassessment of ancient practices may be in order in the case of wheat, milk, and fructose.
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herbs, and other plants in a year, a typical modern diet includes seventeen different agricultural plant crops at most.
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We do not need to swallow every new development in our food culture blindly. Wheat products for breakfast, lunch, and dinner, fructose in practically all processed foods, or milk products long after weaning—
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it is not surprising that our bodies sometimes rebel.
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diarrhea, or severe fatigue do not occur for no reason, and nobody should be expected to just accept them as “one of those things.”
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When the body has returned to a healthy equilibrium, even a sensitive gut can usually sort itself out. Then there is no need to impose a lifelong ban on certain products, but simply to make sure you consume them in quantities your system can easily cope with.
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body wants to get rid of— such as the remains of medicines, food coloring, or cholesterol.
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even when we have not eaten anything of this color.
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This is due to a very important product that we manufacture fresh every day: blood.
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same number are broken down
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Examining the color of feces can provide a useful insight into the goings- on of our gut.
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The only side effect is a reduced tolerance for acetaminophen, which should be avoided by those with Gilbert’s syndrome.
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If they are not working as they should, the familiar brown pigment will not be produced. Antibiotics or diarrhea can cause such an alteration in fecal color.
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Blocked connections are never a good thing, and those who notice a gray tint to their feces should consult their doctor.
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unless you have been eating large amounts of beetroot.
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such a reticence to talk about what we find in the toilet bowl means that people with unhealthy looking feces are often unaware of
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Type 1 digestive remains take around one hundred hours to pass through the system (constipation). In Type 7, they pass through in just ten hours (diarrhea).
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Ideally, they should not plummet straight to the bottom, as this would indicate the possibility that they still contain nutrients that have not been digested properly.
2. The Nervous System of the Gut
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Similarly, there are areas of our own body we are simply unaware of. You don’t feel your organs working away all day long.
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we eat disappears into the realm of what scientists call smooth muscle.
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In many people, stress has the opposite effect, causing the muscles surrounding the blood vessels to contract, restricting the flow of blood. This can lead to high blood pressure.
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The enteric nervous system controls all processes that take place in the digestive tract, and it is extraordinarily autonomous.
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we are oblivious to the workings of these independent- minded nerve fibers.
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There are specific receptors for a large range of individual smells. Some spend years hanging around up your nose, waiting for their chance to shine.
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large number of olfactory cells,
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The most powerful muscles in our body are the jaw muscles; the body’s most flexible striated (not smooth) muscle is the tongue.
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Tooth enamel is the hardest substance produced by the human body.
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the stage curtain of the esophagus.
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We close our mouth, since breathing must stop for swallowing to take place.
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This movement is so powerful that it can be heard down the corridor and round the corner— that popping sound in the ear that often accompanies a powerful swallow.
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process is so automatic that it even works when the owner of the esophagus is standing on her head.
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from mouth to stomach is the first act of the performance.
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It requires maximum concentration and good teamwork. The conscious peripheral nervous system and the unconscious autonomous nervous system must work together in perfect harmony.
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somewhere between six hundred and two thousand times a day. And each act of swallowing involves more than twenty pairs of muscles.
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In old age, we are more prone to choking. The muscles that coordinate the process may no longer work quite so precisely.
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A better strategy is to seek out a speech therapist to help you whip your swallowing squad into good shape before choking attacks become too frequent.
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Emotions like fear or stress can reduce the ability of the smooth
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nauseous— after eating just a small portion of food.
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This leads the gut to move its contents on down the line, making room for the next batch. That’s why we often feel the urge to seek out the toilet soon after enjoying a large meal.
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Scraps of that size are no longer lobbed against the stomach wall, but slip through a little hole at the end of the stomach.
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sponge cake, rice, or pasta make it through to the small intestine pretty quickly. There, they are digested and rapidly cause an increase in the levels of sugar in our blood. The doorman detains proteins and fats in the stomach for considerably longer.
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This explains why we often fancy a sweet dessert after eating meat or fatty, fried foods. Our blood sugar levels are impatient and want to rise quickly, and dessert provides a quick blood sugar fix.
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rich in carbohydrates may perk us up more quickly, but they do not keep us feeling full for as long as meaty or fatty meals.
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Whatever our small intestine does, it always obeys one basic rule: onward, ever onward!
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many doctors recommend a high- fiber diet to encourage digestion: indigestible fiber presses against the gut wall,
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It does not invest work in something that will not do us any good. It simply sends such stuff straight back by return mail.
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an unchewed kernel of corn, tablets coated to stop them dissolving in gastric juices, surviving bacteria from the food we have eaten, or a piece of chewing gum swallowed by mistake, for example.
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“migrating motor complex.”
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Everyone has heard their little housekeeper at work. It is the rumbling belly, which, contrary to popular belief, does not come mainly from the stomach, but from the small intestine.
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When the stomach and the small intestine are both empty, the coast is clear for the housekeeper to do its work.
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Constant snacking means there is no time for cleaning. This is part of the reason some nutritional scientists recommend we leave five hours between meals. There is no scientific evidence proving that the interval must be precisely five hours.
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When we are anxious, our brain jockeys the large intestine along, leaving it without sufficient time to reabsorb all that fluid. The result is diarrhea.
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Women’s large intestines are generally slightly more lethargic than men’s. Medical researchers have not yet discovered why this is so, but the greatest likelihood is that it has a hormonal cause.
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Faster guts accomplish this journey in eight hours; for slower digesters, it can take three and a half days. Due to all the mixing they undergo, some cake particles may linger in the chill- out space of the large intestine for twelve hours,
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of the large intestine, “Slow and steady wins the race.”
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Reflux is the regurgitation of gastric acid and digestive enzymes into the pharyngeal area; in the case of heartburn, those juices travel no farther than the end of the esophagus, causing a burning sensation in the chest.
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two different nervous systems have to work together in the esophagus and stomach area—
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For example, the sphincter muscle between the esophagus and the stomach is under the control of nerves from the brain.
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Chewing gum or sipping tea can help the digestive tract because small, repeated swallows help nudge the nerves in the right direction— down toward the stomach, not back up.
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This is why giving up smoking often helps reduce reflux and heartburn complaints.
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That’s why many doctors recommend avoiding foodstuffs that can reduce the strength of the sealing sphincter: chocolate, hot spices, alcohol, sugary sweets, coffee, and so on.
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individual should use trial and error to find out which foods affect their nerves, rather than unnecessarily cutting out everything that might be the culprit.
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The trial- and- error test here would involve avoiding food rich in glutamate for a while.
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Often, glutamate hides behind more complicated formulations such as monosodium glutamate or something similar. If avoiding it results in an improvement— fine. If not, at least you will have eaten more healthily for a while.
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Neutralizing stomach acid should not be used as a long- term strategy, however.
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useful for combating the harmful effects of allergens and bacteria from our food, and is instrumental in digesting proteins.
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Antacids are never a long- term solution for reflux and certainly not for other acidic phenomena,
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attacks strike mainly at night, it is a good idea to try propping the upper body up to an angle of 30 degrees.
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Incidentally, a 30- degree upper body inclination is also good for the cardiovascular system.
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but from bile reaching the esophagus from the small intestine via the stomach. Bile does not cause a burning sensation, but it has much more insidious effects than acid.
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We turn pale as the blood drains from our cheeks and is sent to the abdomen. Our blood pressure drops and our heart rate falls. Finally, we feel that unmistakable sign: saliva, and lots of it. The mouth begins producing saliva in great quantities as soon as it receives information from the brain about the emergency that’s underway. This saliva is meant to protect our teeth from the corrosive effects of the gastric acid they are about to come into contact with.
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An empty stomach is no defense against vomiting, since the small intestine is just as able to expel its contents. For this to happen, the stomach opens the gate to allow the contents of the small intestine back
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Our lungs take a particularly large breath before our airways are closed. The stomach and the opening to the esophagus suddenly relax and— bam!— the diaphragm and abdominal muscles abruptly press upward, squeezing us like a tube of toothpaste.
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Horses, however, are not even able to nibble. If something bad ends up in their small intestine, the results can often be life threatening.
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Vomit that contains recognizable bits of food is almost certain to have originated from the stomach and not from the small intestine. The smaller the particles, the more bitter the taste, and the more yellow the color, the more likely it is to be a salutation from the small intestine.
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Sudden vomiting that comes in a violent surge almost without warning is likely to be caused by a gastrointestinal virus.
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Rollercoaster puking is basically the same as travel sickness. In this case, no toxins are involved, yet sick still ends up on people’s shoes,
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The brain is the bodyguard of the body— guarding it meticulously and cautiously, especially when the body belongs to a small child.
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best explanation of motion sickness is this: when the information sent to the brain from the eyes is at odds with that sent by the ears, the brain cannot understand what is going on and slams on every emergency brake at its disposal.
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passenger reads a book in a moving car or train, their eyes register “hardly any motion,” while the balance sensors in the ears say “lots of motion.” It’s the same, but opposite, effect as when you watch the trees whizz by when driving through a forest. If you move your head a little as well, it looks as if the trees are rushing by faster than you are actually moving— and that, too, confuses the brain. On an evolutionary scale, our brains are familiar
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with such mismatches between eyes and balance sensors as signs of poisoning. Anyone who has ever drunk too much or taken drugs will have felt the room spinning, even when they are not moving at
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Under normal circumstances, we synthesize the stress- response hormone CRF (corticotropin- releasing factor) in the morning,
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CRF helps us tap into energy reserves, prevents the immune system from overreacting, and helps our skin tan as a protective response to stress from sunlight. The brain can also inject an extra portion of CRF into the
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When gastrointestinal cells register large amounts of CRF, irrespective of where they originate (in the brain or in the gut), the information that one of the two is overwhelmed by the outside world is enough for the body to react with diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting.
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When the gut is stressed, partly digested food is ejected either because it is toxic or because the gut is currently not in a position to digest it properly.
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There is simply no time for gentle, comfortable digestion. When people throw up from nerves, it is simply their digestive tract trying to do its best to help.
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some simple strategies for reducing unnecessary attacks of vomiting.
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For travel sickness, keep your eyes fixed on the horizon far ahead. This helps the eyes and balance sensors coordinate their information better.
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ginger has a beneficial effect.
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The drugs in the last group are almost identical to drugs used to treat allergies. Both suppress the alarm- signal transmitter histamine.
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Modern allergy drugs have been developed and improved to such a degree that they barely dock in the brain at all. This interaction with the brain is what makes the suppression of histamines cause drowsiness.
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The point is located two to three finger- breadths below the wrist, right between the two prominent tendons of the lower arm. If you don’t happen to have an acupuncture needle handy, you can try gently stroking the skin at that point until symptoms improve.
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for vomiting caused by emotional factors, the best thing is often to build a safe nest for your own inner petrel. Relaxation techniques or hypnotherapy (from a reputable practitioner!) can help train the nerves to be more thick- skinned.
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Silly stress at the office or exam- related anxiety become less threatening when we refuse to let these stressors affect us so personally.
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They protect us from unseen toxins in our food, are overcareful when faced with travel- related eye– ear hallucinations, and save energy to deal with imminent problems.
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The same principle applies when you have eaten something bad but don’t feel the need to vomit.
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Foam can easily migrate from the stomach to the lungs,
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following conditions: bowel movement less than three times a week; particularly hard stool a quarter of the time, often in pellet form (••• ), which is difficult or impossible to pass without help (medication or tricks); no satisfying feeling of emptiness on leaving the toilet.
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Temporary constipation can be due to traveling, illness, or periods of stress. More
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Almost half of us have experienced constipation when traveling. Particularly in the first few days of a trip, it is often difficult to go properly. This can be due to a variety of reasons, but in most cases it boils down to the simple fact that the gut is a creature of habit. The nerves of the gut remember what kind of food we prefer and at what time we prefer to eat it. They know how much we move around and how much water we drink. They know whether it is day or night and what time we usually go to the toilet. If everything goes according to plan, they complete their tasks without complaint and activate our gut muscles to help us digest.
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whole day eating prepackaged sandwiches, strange airplane
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We drink less than normal, for fear of having to go to the toilet too often, and dehydrate even more during the flight.
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All this does not go unnoticed by the nerves of the gut. They can get confused and put the brakes on until they receive a signal that everything is normal and they can start work again.
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can often be caused by the “not my toilet” syndrome. Sufferers of this syndrome simply dislike doing their business in unfamiliar toilets.
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But even all that doesn’t help those with a serious case of “not my toilet” syndrome. They simply cannot relax enough to finish the work their creature of habit has begun.
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gut wall into action: fiber. Dietary fiber is not digested in the small intestine and can knock on the wall of the large intestine in a friendly way to say there is someone here who wants to be shown the way out.
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psyllium seed husks and the rather more pleasant- tasting plum.
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Drinking more fluids can only help those who don’t already drink enough. For those who do, drinking even more will not bring about any improvement.
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Small children running high temperatures often lose so much body fluid through sweating that their digestive system grinds to a halt.
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The air in the plane is so dry that it extracts fluid from our body without our even noticing.
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Don’t put yourself under pressure. If you need to go to the toilet, just go— especially if you are a creature of habit like your gut and usually go at an appointed time.
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Probiotics and prebiotics— living, beneficial bacteria and their favorite food— can breathe new life into a tired gut.
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Take more walks? That is not always a successful strategy. A sudden decrease in exercise can cause the gut to slow down, it’s true.
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rocking squat technique.
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If you don’t know the precise cause of your constipation, you cannot choose the right remedy.
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THE AIM OF taking laxatives is easily stated: to produce the perfect little pile. Laxatives can coax even the shyest gut out of its shell.
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Osmosis is water’s sense of equality. When one region of water contains more salt, sugar, or similar substances than another, the less rich water will flow toward the richer water until both contain the same amount of solute and they can live on in peaceful equilibrium.
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They take effect very suddenly, and if they are taken too often, they disrupt the body’s electrolyte balance.
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Since human beings can barely absorb sorbitol (or lactulose) into their bloodstream, it is often used as a sweetening agent. It then appears on food labels as E420, and this explains why sugar- free cough candies, for example, always include the warning, “Excessive consumption may have a laxative effect.”
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PEG- 150 are not contained in laxatives, but they are used in products such as skin cream, where they perform a very similar service— they make the skin more supple.
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This can cause vitamin deficiencies that lead to illness, especially if fecal lubricants are taken too often or in excessive amounts.
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MANY DOCTORS PRESCRIBE laxatives without explaining the three- day rule, although it is easy to remember and is a useful aid.
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Normal situation: one- third of the large intestine is emptied and it is full again by the next day. 2. After taking a laxative: the entire large intestine is emptied and it may take three days to fill up again.
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Sometimes, we can also influence the world around us by suppressing movement. But if you’re a tree and can’t choose whether you move or not, you don’t need a brain.
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body. The gut not only possesses an unimaginable number of nerves, those nerves are also unimaginably different from those of the rest of the body.
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brain regions as, respectively, self- awareness, emotion, morality, fear, memory, and motivation.
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And, indeed, the mice with the enhanced gut flora not only kept swimming for longer and with more motivation, but their blood was also found to contain fewer stress hormones.
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The vagus nerve is the fastest and most important route from the gut to the brain. It runs through the diaphragm, between the lungs and the heart,
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The brain needs this information to form a picture of how the body is doing.
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The gut has not only a remarkable system of nerves to gather all this information, but also a huge surface area. That makes it the body’s largest sensory organ. Eyes, ears, nose, or the skin pale by comparison.
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not disappear overnight, it simply becomes more refined. A gut that does not feel good might now subtly affect our mood, and a healthy, well- nourished gut can discreetly improve our sense of well- being.
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The brain’s bouncer is the thalamus.
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Sufferers also have an above- average incidence of anxiety or depressive disorders.
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the gut’s threshold is lowered or when the brain insists on having information it would not normally receive.
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It is kind enough to save energy on digestion, producing less mucus and reducing the blood supply.
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This negative stimulus can cause fatigue, loss of appetite, general malaise, or diarrhea.
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real stress situations can continue for much longer than minor upsets. If the gut has to continue to forego energy in favor of the brain, its health will eventually suffer.
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stress is unhygienic.
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stress changes the weather in the gut.
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our gut is capable of making us feel the negative effects long after the period of stress is over.
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strain called BALB/ c are more timid and docile than those belonging to the NIH Swiss strain, which exhibit more exploratory behavior and gregariousness.
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It starts with the little things like mealtimes, for example, which should be enjoyed without pressure, at a leisurely pace.
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The earlier in life mealtime calm is introduced, the better. Stress of any kind activates nerves that inhibit the digestive process, which means we not only extract less energy from our food, we also take longer to digest it, putting the gut under unnecessary extra strain.
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medicated chewing gum that prevent travel sickness by numbing the nerves of the gut.
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If unaccountable grumpiness or anxiety can originate in the gut (even without nausea), is it possible that these drugs could be used to banish them?
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how much of the relaxing effect of that “just one glass of wine” in the evening actually comes from a sedated gut brain?
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Because the nerves of the brain are more complicated creatures than the muscles of the body, a trainer needs to have more creative exercises up his sleeve.
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that such drugs may increase the plasticity of the nerves.
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This process is not complete until we reach the age of about twenty- five. After that, nerves react according to well- rehearsed patterns.
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disappearance not only of the inexplicable fits of laughter
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After this age, we find it more difficult to deal with sudden change, but the payback is a more stable, calmer disposition. This can also result in negative thought patterns taking root, such as “I am worthless” or “Everything I do goes wrong.”
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After all, 95 percent of the serotonin we produce is manufactured in the cells of our gut, where it has an enormous effect on enabling the nerves to stimulate muscle movement and acts as an important signaling molecule.
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This would be particularly useful in treating the sudden onset of severe depression in people whose lives are otherwise fine. Perhaps it is their gut that needs a session on the therapist’s couch and their head is not to blame at all.
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We should not always blame depression on the brain or on our life circumstances— there is much more to us than that.
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revealing his theory that human self- awareness originates in the insular cortex.
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The insula receives information about feelings from the entire body. Each piece of information is like a pixel. The insula then organizes these pixels to form an overall image.
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purpose of the brain is to create movement—
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The aim of movement is to bring about an effect. The brain can use the insula’s map to plan meaningful movement.
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main purposes of movement is to shift us constantly toward a healthy equilibrium—
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In order for the insula to create a reasonable image of our self, it probably also takes in perceptions of our environment and experiences from the past.
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the insula creates a picture of our entire feeling body.
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“I feel, then I think, therefore I am.”
3. The World of Microbes
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Just as we humans occupy the planet, our bodies are occupied by a population that reveals itself only under the microscope— bacteria.
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all the microorganisms that teem on the inside and outside of our bodies— 99 percent are found in the
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Almost every body smell is, in fact, produced by bacteria.
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microscopic world in us, on us, and around us.
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We know that gut bacteria are responsible for blood groups and that harmful bacteria cause diarrhea.
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Skewed proportions of the different bacteria in our gut have been detected in those suffering from obesity, malnutrition, nervous diseases, depression, and chronic digestive problems.
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Microbiome research is still young, complete with wobbly milk teeth and short pants.
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cheekier chaps
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We now know that E. coli make up less than 1 percent of the population in the gut.
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Sometimes it even wages war on tiny pollen grains that accidently get sucked into our nostrils. Hay fever sufferers know the signs: a streaming nose and itchy eyes.
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The vast majority of our immune system (about 80 percent) is located in the gut. And with good reason.
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scarlet fever should be treated immediately with antibiotics. If it is not treated quickly, the immune system can begin to mistake the cells of the joints or other organs for the bacteria that cause scarlet fever and attack them. It might suddenly think our knee is a nasty sore- throat germ hiding out in our leg. It happens rarely— but it does happen.
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from a motorbike accident to heavy blood loss during childbirth.
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If it weren’t for this combat readiness— learned through training by our gut bacteria— there would be no blood groups and any donor could give blood to any recipient.
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Could it be the case that these provocateurs help keep the bacteria population in the small intestine down?
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The majority of the microbes in our gut protect us simply by occupying spaces that would otherwise be free for harmful bacteria to colonize.
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If they are given bacteria from mice with type 2 diabetes, they soon begin to develop problems metabolizing sugar.
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We now have good reason to speculate that, just as the macroscopic world we live in influences us, we are also influenced by the microscopic world that lives in us.
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The first ones we meet are her protective vaginal flora— an army that defends a very important territory.
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by producing acids that drive away other bacteria and keep the way cleaner and cleaner the closer they are to the womb.
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might lick our mother’s skin, gnaw on a chair leg, and give the car window or the neighbor’s dog the occasional sloppy kiss.
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we are allowed to kiss and cuddle with our mother regularly,
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Breast- feeding also promotes particular members of our gut flora— breast- milk- loving Bifidobacteria, for example. Colonizing the gut so early, these bacteria are instrumental in the development of later bodily functions, such as those of the immune system or the metabolic system.
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Breast- feeding can help shift the balance toward the beneficial and reduce the risk of a later gluten intolerance, for example.
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Breast milk contains antibodies that can protect against any dangerous bacteria a child might make the acquaintance of (by licking the family pet, for example).
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Bacteria have to like living in the place where they work.
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Identical twins share the same genes, but they do not have the same bacterial mix.
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generally accepted that the first populations to colonize our
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gut lay the main foundations for the future of our entire body.
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Just three weeks after birth, the metabolic products of our gut flora can predict increased risks of allergies, asthma, or neurodermatitis in later
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Three- quarters of newborn babies who pick up typical hospital germs are those born by cesarean section. They also have an increased risk of developing allergies or asthma. One
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Poor nutrition, unnecessary use of antibiotics, excessive cleanliness, or too much exposure to bad bacteria can also feature among the causes.
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can exercise control over every aspect of our microscopic world.
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Facebug (Facebook for microbes!), a picture of your dinner would provoke an excited response from millions of users— and shudders of disgust from millions more.
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We are our flora’s weather and its seasons. Our flora can take care of us,
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Bees with well- equipped gut flora can deal with parasite attacks better than those without. Gut bacteria are an incredibly important factor in this evolutionary survival strategy.
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Eukaryotes are made up of the largest and most complex cells. They can be multicellular and grow to a pretty impressive size. A whale is a eukaryote. Humans are eukaryotes.
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The most common eukaryotes found in the gut are yeasts, which are also opisthokonts.
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Biologists divide bacteria into more than twenty phyla or lineages.
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The bacteria kingdom is huge.
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Every day, billions and billions of foreign microorganisms fly round the world without paying a single cent for their tickets.
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Everyone has their own personal collection of bacteria. It could even be described as a unique bacterial fingerprint.
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Anything we come into regular contact with carries our microbial signature.
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Scientists need to identify patterns to deduce facts from them.
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coli and its evil twin EHEC are members of the same family, for example.
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We know that babies contain more active genes for digesting breast milk than adults do.
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Our gut bacteria paint a rough portrait of who we are: young, chubby, or Asian, perhaps.
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Soy’s ability to protect against prostate cancer, cardiovascular disease, or bone disorders, for example, has now been proven.
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Every microbe contains many genes involved in breaking down carbohydrates or proteins and in producing vitamins.
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Despite the great diversity, there was order. One of three families was always dominant in the realm of bacteria.
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They are equipped to extract energy from whatever we ingest.
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shiny hair, and strong nails,” as you might read on the packages of supplements you can buy in your local pharmacy. Biotin is also involved in some of the body’s vital metabolic processes. We need it to synthesize
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formidable. Most people reading them feel the symptoms apply to them in some way. But it is important to remember that you can catch a cold or feel a bit lethargic without jumping to the conclusion that you have a biotin deficiency. And cholesterol levels are more likely to be raised by eating a big plate of bacon for breakfast than by eating the avidin in an undercooked egg.
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antibacterial medications such as antibiotics can cause biotin deficiency.
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They always find what they are looking for, since carbon is a waste product of our metabolism.
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If it weren’t for Desulfovibrionales whipping around with their propeller- tails, snapping up the sulfur, Prevotella would soon find themselves drowning in a sulfur swamp of their own making.
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thiamine. Also known as vitamin
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Our brains require it not only to keep the nerves well nourished, but also to coat them in an electrically insulating layer of fat.
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thiamine deficiency may be the cause of muscle tremors and forgetfulness.
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polishing rice removes the vitamin B1 it contains,
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But once again, beware: these symptoms can have many causes.
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They are rarely caused exclusively by a vitamin deficiency.
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Ruminococcus produces a substance called haem, which the body needs for many things, including producing blood.
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stands to reason that bacteria are somehow important in this process.
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gut bacteria affect our metabolism,
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This relatively unexplored condition causes symptoms that can include severe bloating, abdominal pain, joint pain, and gastrointestinal infections, as well as nutrient deficiencies and anemia.
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Our bacteria are too far down the system to provide this practical steakhouse service so we pass them out of our gut undigested.
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Yogurt is nothing other than milk that has been predigested by bacteria. Much of the sugar in the milk (lactose) has already been broken down and transformed into lactic acid (lactate) and smaller sugar molecules.
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Predigested milk (yogurt) saves our body some work— we just have to finish off what the bacteria started.
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“Contains mainly dextrorotatory [or right- turning] lactic acid.”
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The substances they release during that process create the aftertaste so appreciated by the wine lover.
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if we are concerned about our weight, we need to think about more than just the big, fat calories we consume and remember that our bacteria are at the dinner table with us.
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Skinny mice excrete a certain quantity of indigestible calories while their overweight peers excrete significantly fewer.
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Bacteria are able to make various fatty acids out of indigestible carbohydrates.
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Studies carried out on obese subjects show that they have less overall diversity in their gut flora and that certain groups of bacteria prevail— primarily those that metabolize carbohydrates.
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inflammation.
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They also have an interesting effect on the thyroid gland. Bacterial infections hinder its function, causing it to produce fewer thyroid hormones, slowing the rate at which the body burns fat.
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subclinical infection causes weight gain.
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too much gluten- rich food have all been observed to have a similar effect. 3.
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Not our brains but our guts are the home of gangs of bacteria that crave hamburgers after three days on a diet. Somehow they manage to pass on that message in a very persuasive way, because we find it almost impossible to deny them any wish.
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Nicotine, for example, makes it through to the brain, where it triggers reward signals or a feeling of relaxed alertness.
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Dopamine? Wasn’t that famously associated with the brain’s reward system? And serotonin? That sounds familiar, too, doesn’t it? Lack of it causes depression.
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They do this not only directly by means of the substances they produce, but also by cranking up the body’s production of certain transmitters. The same principle applies to the feeling of satiety.
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brain does not receive enough of the energy eaten as food and so decides that it is still hungry.
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obesity and high cholesterol levels are closely connected with the greatest health issues of our time: hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and diabetes.
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no one considered the fact that certain bacteria are required to curdle milk.
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bacterium they used was Lactobacillus fermentus, and the cholesterol they had added was . . . gone! At least a considerable proportion of it was.
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That’s about half the improvement attained by taking a mild anti- cholesterol drug— but without the side effects.
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Cholesterol comes from the Greek words chole (bile) and stereos (solid). Cholesterol was first discovered in gall stones.
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BSH allows bacteria to alter bile to make it work less efficiently. The cholesterol and fat dissolved in bile can then no longer be absorbed by the body and they end up, to put it bluntly, down the toilet.
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Too much of it is indeed harmful— it’s all about finding the right balance.
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Bacteria help to feed us, make some foods more digestible, and produce their own substances.
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the bad guys: they only want what’s best . . . for themselves.
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Salmonella bacteria are not part of a chicken’s natural gut flora, but they are a common pathogen.
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Once there, they invade our cells, which become infected and pump large quantities of fluid into the gut in an attempt to flush out the pathogen as quickly as possible.
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it’s not you, it’s me— I just can’t deal with your clinging personality.
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Always use plastic chopping boards because they are easier to clean properly and provide fewer grooves and ridges for bacteria to hide
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raw meat or eggshells thoroughly with hot water— chopping boards, hands, cutlery, kitchen sponges, and colanders,
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Whenever possible make sure that meat and egg- based foods are cooked through.
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Salmonella bacteria are part of the normal gut flora of reptiles.
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the mucus membrane that protects the stomach from digesting itself with its acidic juices.
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Until that time, it was believed that bacteria could only infect wounds, and cause fevers and colds.
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most people who do have stomach problems have H. pylori to thank for their woes.
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Two- thirds of stomach ulcers and almost all ulcers in the small intestine are caused by an H. pylori
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Constant irritation is never a good thing.
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The stomach has a battery of stem cells, which constantly replace lost cells. If these replacement manufacturers are overworked, they may begin to make mistakes. Cancer cells are the result.
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patients with Parkinson’s have an increased incidence of stomach problems,
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Rates of asthma, allergies, diabetes, and neurodermatitis have risen as rates of H. pylori have fallen. This observation is far from constituting proof that H. pylori is the sole protection against asthma, but it may be part of the overall picture.
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As the name implies, these cells regulate the immune system’s reactions.
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The pollen- thing is only looking for a flower to pollinate.
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one- third in people who harbor H. pylori. Increases in inflammatory gut disease, autoimmune problems, and chronic inflammations
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What part is played by agents that irritate the stomach’s mucus membrane, such as painkillers, cigarette smoke, alcohol, coffee, and stress?
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stomach cancer, certain lymphomas, or
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Parkinson’s disease run in the family, it is also a good idea to offload H. pylori.
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there is a pregnant woman in the house (but not by her!), why raw food should be avoided by mothers- to- be, and why fruit and vegetables should always be washed.
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The risk of being involved in a traffic accident is higher among toxoplasma carriers, especially when the infection is in the active early stage
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of serotonin is associated with depression and anxiety disorders.)
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If the amygdala gets damaged, a person can become fearless.
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smells are not checked out before they make their way to our consciousness. Strangely,
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Anyway, the point is that smells can stimulate attraction.
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threadworms.
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They lay their eggs in the many little creases around the anus and wriggle around until it starts to itch.
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When are we least likely to go and wash our hands after scratching our behind? When we are oblivious to all this action because we are asleep or too sleepy to get up and head for the bathroom.
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They are guests who wake the manager in time for morning exercises and then give their host a massage to stimulate the immune system. Furthermore, they steal very little of our food.
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Who wants a pinworm with a bad sense of direction, after all?
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There are many problems this can cause: not going to the toilet often enough, going to the toilet too often, abdominal cramps, headaches, nausea, or none of the above.
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The typical medication prescribed— let’s call it mebendazole for the sake of argument— works on the tit- for- tat principle we all know from kindergarten: if you bother my gut, I’ll bother yours.
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It’s a bit like trying to get rid of unwanted guests by not offering them anything more to eat.
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But cleanliness is not always what we imagine it to be.
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Clever cleanliness begins with our everyday routines— but what is well- advised caution and what is excessive hygiene?
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Pro bios means “for life.”
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Pre bios means “before life.”
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Anti bios means “against life.”
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spitting is still frowned upon, we are still reluctant to share towels and toothbrushes,
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Different people deal with fear in different ways. Dismissing this as hysteria is too easy.
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Fear- driven hygiene involves attempting to clean everything away or kill it off. We don’t know what it might be, but we assume the worst.
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The higher the hygiene standards in a country, the higher that nation’s incidence of allergies and autoimmune diseases.
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Even harmful bacteria can be good for us when the immune system uses them for training.
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four recommended strategies for keeping them in check: dilution, temperature change, drying, and cleaning.
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One example of bacteria dilution in the home is washing fruit and vegetables.
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Airing a room is also a dilution technique.
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Sponges and cloths should be thoroughly wrung out and allowed to dry— otherwise they become the perfect place for moisture- loving microbes.
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antiperspirants are less cozy homes for bacteria— and fewer bacteria produce less body odor.
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dry food it keeps for longer before it rots.
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fridge contains so much food that it remains a paradise for bacteria even at low temperatures.
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optimum temperature
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a load of underpants,
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should be washed at 140 degrees Fahrenheit (60 degrees Celsius) or more.
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pumped straight into a patient’s veins (such as infusions).
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Too frequent hand washing makes no sense— and the same is true of too frequent showering. If the protective fat layer is rinsed away too often, our unprotected skin is exposed to the environment.
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A company is using a mixture of bacteria to clean the toilets. The odorless bacteria occupy the places normally colonized by the bugs that create that all- too- familiar public toilet smell.
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Cleanliness is a healthy balance of sufficient good bacteria and a few bad ones.
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But who is it who manufactures most antibiotics? It’s bacteria.
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In Germany, one person in every four takes antibiotics once a year on average. The main reason for taking them is colds.
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Colds are often not even caused by bacteria, but by viruses!
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work in three different ways: by peppering the bacteria with holes, by poisoning the bacteria, or by rendering the bacteria unable to reproduce. They have no effect on viruses at all.
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The senseless use of antibiotics does, however, kill many helpful bacteria, which can be harmful in itself.
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There is no reason not to take antibiotics when it is medically appropriate to do so. The benefits certainly outweigh the disadvantages,
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To tell it like it is: a large portion of that pile is dead gut bacteria.
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The result is a formidable battlefield— you can see the casualties the next time you go to the toilet.
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The ability to return quickly to a stable state following an extreme experience is described with same word by gut researchers and psychologists: resilience.
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The thing is that antibiotics rarely kill all bacteria. They kill certain communities depending on the toxins they use.
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The more resistances the bacteria have developed, the more difficult it is to get them under control again with antibiotics.
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Do not take antibiotics unless it is really necessary. And if you do have to take them, then always complete the course.
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Choose organically farmed meat.
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In countries like India or Spain, for example, there is almost no regulation of the amount of antibiotics given to animals.
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European Union banned the use of antibiotics in animal feed as performance enhancers.
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possible, it is worth spending that little extra— to prevent resistance- breeding zoos and for your peace of mind . . . and peace of gut.
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Wash fruit and vegetables thoroughly. Animal feces are a popular fertilizer, and liquid manure is used in vegetable fields.
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Take care abroad. One traveler in four returns home carrying highly resistant bacteria. Most disappear in a few months, but some lurk around for much longer.
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“Cook it, peel it, or leave it”
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Pharmacies sell concentrated plant antibiotics to treat developing cold symptoms, urinary infections, and inflammations in the mouth and throat.
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well- informed doctor will not prescribe antibiotics for every little thing— but will tell you in no uncertain terms when they are really necessary.
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We agree to sacrifice our good bacteria in the hope of getting rid of the bad. In the case of a minor cold, that’s not a good deal; for serious illnesses, it’s a trade that pays off.
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Helpful bacteria are an important part of our life, and we are constantly surrounded and covered by them.
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All these foods rely on bacteria for a process we call fermentation. The process often results in the production of acid, which makes the yogurt or vegetables taste sour. This acid, along with the many good bacteria, protects the food from dangerous microbes. Fermentation is the oldest and healthiest way of preserving food.
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The diversity of bacteria in fermented foods has fallen sharply. Industrialization has resulted in standardized production processes using single bacteria species isolated in laboratories.
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asserted the claim that good bacteria can help us live longer, better lives.
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specifically, the bacteria that live on milky nipples and which are particularly common in the guts of breast- fed babies: Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli.
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Today, the species discovered by Stamen Grigorov is more correctly known as Lactobacillus helveticus spp. bulgaricus. These bacteria are not particularly good at resisting digestion and only a small number of them reach the large intestine alive.
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To summarize: any yogurt can be good for you, although not everyone can tolerate milk protein or too much animal fat.
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three areas in which our good bacteria can display fascinating abilities.
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But sometimes our bacterial community faces attack. That can be from antibiotics, a bad diet, illness, stress, and many, many other causes.
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Good for treating diarrhea.
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Good for the immune system. For people who tend to get sick often, it can be a good idea to try different probiotics, especially when colds are rife. If that is too expensive, eating a pot of yogurt a day may be enough, since bacteria don’t necessary have to be alive to trigger some mild effects.
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Possible protection against allergies.
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Different bacteria have different genes— some are better at advising the immune system, others are more belligerent about ridding the gut of diarrhea- causing bugs, and so on.
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There is one limitation to the efficacy of all current probiotics we take: they are isolated species of bacteria bred in the lab.
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Clostridium difficile infections.
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Looking for species that may have probiotic effects is time- consuming and difficult, just as the search for medicinal plants was in the past.
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To gain the benefits they offer, just one condition must be met: good bacteria must already be present in the gut.
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prebiotics can help: they are roughage that can only be eaten by nice bacteria.
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Resistant starches form, for example, when potatoes or rice are boiled and then left to cool. This allows the starches to crystalize, making them more resistant to digestion.
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Eating these dishes regularly has an interesting side effect— it causes regular cravings for just such foods.
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The sudden change will freak the bacteria out, and they will metabolize everything they can in a fit of euphoria. The result is a never- ending trumpet concerto from down below.
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Overproduction of gas is not a pleasant
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but passing a bit of wind is not only necessary, it is healthy,
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Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, for instance, do not produce any unpleasant odors.
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People who never need to break wind are starving their gut bacteria and are not good hosts for their microbe guests.
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Bacterial toxins have various effects on the body, including anything from fatigue and tremors to comas.
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Sweetness is not in itself unhealthy, we simply eat only the most unhealthy kind of sweetness.
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Almost nothing influences our gut bacteria as much as the food we eat. Prebiotics are the most powerful tool at our disposal if we want to support our good bacteria— that is, those that are already there and are there to stay.
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We need to include real roughage, made of real dietary fiber in vegetables and fruit.
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If the good and the bad are in equilibrium, the bad ones can make us stronger and the good ones can take care of us and keep us healthy.
4. Update on the Brain-Gut Connection
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Medical thought has also undergone a development when it comes to stress, and the gut has been recognized as playing an important role.
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Nothing terrible has happened, and we really can’t even pinpoint what’s causing our bad mood— we just feel less perky than usual. Such moments of gloom rarely warrant a mention in our day-
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to- day conversations or in the media— but they are currently a hot topic among research psychologists.
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Results like these lead us to the question of how great the gut’s influence on our mood is. They also raise the question of what aspects of our mood it can affect.
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stress is better described as the state the nervous system is in.
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such as stress hormone levels, nervous stomach aches, nausea, diarrhea, and susceptibility to colds.
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Those who slept less in the run- up to an exam were always more stressed. This effect was less pronounced among subjects who swallowed a daily dose of Bifidobacterium bifidum.
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Some politician somewhere in the world says something stupid, but in the past hardly anyone would have got wind of it. Elsewhere, a plane comes down, killing an entire football team you would never otherwise have heard about.
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Someone or other puts a picture of her perfect life online, and we end up comparing ourselves unfavorably to something we would never have seen in the past.
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we engage in it enough, brooding over problems that cannot be changed can result in feelings of stress.
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physiological system that was meant to help us in times of stress is thus co- opted, and we increasingly slide into a behavior pattern of “stressed griping,” rather than directly observing the world around us, asking inquisitive questions, or taking care of our well- being.
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Could we perhaps use the gut to prevent depression before it occurs? Are bacteria better suited as a complementary treatment, to be used alongside medication, therapy, and lifestyle changes?
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the aim should be to reach a better understanding of our bodies and how we live in them.
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when we fancy a sour ingredient in our meal, are we really craving good bacteria?
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This observation gives cause for a little experiment you can carry out for yourself.
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FERMENTING MEANS GETTING bacteria to pre- digest your food. Bad bacteria and molds do not ferment your food nicely, but spoil it and render it inedible. Good bacteria, however,
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Since good bacteria are everywhere, just hanging around in the environment, it makes sense to provide them with a useful job to do and something to eat.
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is a good choice, but do not use iodized salt under any circumstances as the iodine inhibits the bacteria’s growth too much.
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acid it relies on means that fermentation is the safest way to preserve food— canned or bottled foods have been known to cause illness due to temperature- resistant bacteria, but no case of illness caused by fermented foods has ever been reported.